Zoonotic Diseases

Introduction Zoonotic diseases are infectious diseases which can be transmitted from animals to man. Due to frequent contact and domestication of wildlife animals, zoonotic diseases are increasingly becoming more prevalent. Public parks and gardens are home to abundant populations of birds. One of the most frequent species known to thrive in such areas are feral pigeon (Columba livia). Although there are few reports of disease transmission between pigeons and humans, their close interaction with humans and ability to carry zoonotic pathogens make them a public health risk.In fact, these birds are present at very high densities (2,000 individuals per km2) and can cover a maximum distance of 5. 29 km (Dickx et al. , 2010). This may result in the increase risk of pathogen transmission among other birds and potentially to humans. Studies have shown that most infected pigeons do not show signs of clinical disease. These birds may therefore pose a public health risk to the human population . Pigeons, like many other bird species, can harbor diseases that can be zoonotic in nature. One of the pathogens most frequently carried by pigeons is Chlamydophila psittaci. C. sittaci is an obligate intracellular bacterium that causes a disease in birds known as Psittacosis or Avian Chlamydiosis. Psittacosis is highly contagious and often causes influenza-like symptoms, severe pneumonia and non-respiratory health problems. Birds can shed this bacterium in the environment when they are either overtly ill or without any symptoms. C. psittaci occurs most frequently in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, parakeets. However, non-psittacine birds including pigeons, doves and mynah birds can also harbour the infectious agent (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005).Therefore, pigeons are thought to be an underestimated source of human chlamydiosis. Studies have shown that pigeons pose a substantial zoonotic risk as are often shown to be naturally infected with a number of viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa that are pathogenic to humans. The potential for zoonotic infection is increased as these birds live in close contact with human beings. The aim of this overview is to present the zoonotic potential of C. psittaci in infected feral pigeon populations, in the context of its history, epidemiology and current approaches in treatment and prevention.Pigeon population in urban areas Commonly known as ‘urban’, ‘street’ or ‘city’ pigeons, the feral rock dove (C. livia) is an abundant bird species that often thrive in streets, squares and parks where they come into close contact with humans. Pigeon populations in most large cities increased worldwide after World War II. They have made contributions of considerable importance to humanity, especially in times of war. Feral pigeons have been domesticated and were put to use by making them messengers due to their homing abilities (Dickx et al. , 2010).Pigeons are one of the few animal species able to survive in our noisy and hectic cities. They are extremely adaptable, which also enables them to accept breeding places that are unnatural to them, e. g. on trees or over running ventilation systems (Magnino et al, 2009). They are also a valuable enrichment to the urban environment as they have a cleaning up function by eating discarded food. In addition, they may represent as a tourist attraction as feeding and care of feral pigeons may be rewarding spare-time activities for many people who enjoy the company of animals (Magnino et al, 2009).The extensive food supply and minimal predator population has indeed provided the ecological basis for the large populations that occur in most cities of the world. Chlamydophila psittaci in pigeons The increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern as they are a source of a large number of zoonotic agents. The most important pathogenic organism transmissible from feral pigeons to humans is Chlamydophila psittaci. In fact, studies in Europe have shown as high as 95. 6% seropositivity values for C. psittaci in feral pigeon populations (Magnino et al. 2009). C. psittaci an obligate intracellular bacterium causes avian chlamydiosis in birds and psittacosis in humans.The bacterium is commonly recognised in psittacine birds such as parrots, macaws, cockatoos and parakeets. It is also indentified in non-psittacine birds such as pigeons, doves and mynah birds (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). There are at least six distinct serovars (A to F) of C. psittaci considered endemic in birds (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Each serovar appears to be associated, though not exclusively, with a different group or order of irds, from which it is most commonly isolated. Genotype B is the most prevalent in pigeons, but the more virulent genotypes A and D have also been discovered (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). All serovars should be considered to be readily transmissible to humans. The av ian strains can infect humans and other mammals, and may cause severe disease and even death. In contrast to the devastating explosive outbreaks in the first half of the 20th century, the present outbreaks are characterized by respiratory signs and low mortality (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Chlamydophila psittaci has been demonstrated in about 465 bird species comprising 30 different bird orders (Greco, Corrente, & Martella, 2005). The highest infection rates are found in psittacine birds and pigeons. The first case of C. psittaci zoonotic transmission from pigeons was described in 1941. A mother and her daughter had picked up a sick feral pigeon in the street in New York City. The pigeon died after four days and, two weeks later, both mother and daughter developed psittacosis with fever and pneumonia (Dickx et al. , 2010).Since then, 47 zoonotic cases linked to pigeons have been reported (Dickx et al. , 2010). As a consequence, feral pigeon populations have been r epeatedly blamed as vectors for the transmission of C. psittaci infections to humans. Caution is needed, as zoonotic transmission from feral pigeons is known to be an underestimated source of infection. Psittacosis in birds Transmission of C. psittaci primarily occurs from one infected bird to another susceptible bird in close proximity. The agent is usually excreted in faeces and nasal discharges.From time to time, faecal shedding occurs and can be activated through stress caused by nutritional deficiencies, prolonged transport, overcrowding, chilling, breeding, egg laying, treatment or handling (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). Bacterial excretion periods during natural infection can vary depending on virulence of the strain, infection dose and host immune status. The most common routes of transmission of C. psittaci in nature are the inhalation and ingestion of contaminated material and, sometimes, ingestion (Vanrompay et al. , 2007). The bacterium can be also transmitted in the nest.In many species, such as columbiformes, transmission from parent to young may occur through feeding, by regurgitation, while the contamination of the nesting site with infective faeces are also important sources of infection (Vazquez et al. , 2010). Also the transmission of C. psittaci may also be facilitated by arthropod vectors in the nest environment, but its occurrence has not been assessed in the wild. Vertical transmission has been demonstrated in other types of avian species. However, occurrence appears to be fairly low. Chlamydiosis is a common chronic infection of pigeons.C. psittaci infection may result in lethargy, anorexia, ruffled feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, conjunctivitis, diarrhea and excretion of green to yellow urates (West, 2011). Most infected feral pigeons are asymptomatic and latent carriers of C. psittaci, which makes it difficult to assess the risk of transmission of the bacterium to other animals, including humans. As mentioned earlier, increased shed ding of the infectious agents may be triggered by stress factors such as other concurrent infections or infestations, lack of food, breeding and overcrowding.It is important to note that as the density of nesting and roosting pigeons increases, the quality of life in the feral pigeon population deteriorates (Dickx et al. , 2010). In fact, excessive population density activates and stimulates regulation mechanisms that decimate nestlings and juvenile pigeons with infectious and parasitic diseases (Hedemma et al. , 2006). Crowded breeding places make pigeons behave more aggressively, which again mostly affects nestlings and juveniles that are the weakest members of the population, leading to a progressive spoiling of their physical condition.Thus, it is important for feral pigeon populations to be managed carefully in the urban environment to obtain an appropriate- sized and healthy population. Psittacosis in humans Although psittacine birds are the major source of human infection, ou tbreaks due to exposure to non-psittacine birds may also occur. The more common of these are due to exposure to pigeons, both wild and domestic. Humans most often become infected by inhaling the organism when urine, respiratory secretions or dried faeces of infected birds are dispersed in the air as very fine droplets or dust particles (Smith et al. , 2011).Other sources of exposure include mouth-to-beak contact, a bite from an infected bird or handling the plumage and tissues of infected birds (Smith et al. , 2011). A study by Smith et al. (2011) suggests that more than half of the human cases were due to exposure to C. psittaci through contaminated dust, direct contact with pigeons through feeding and handling pigeons. In addition, about 40 of the cases resulted from transient contacts with feral pigeons such as eating lunch in a park frequented by pigeons, walking through a pigeon flock, and living in a neighbourhood frequented by pigeons (Vazquez et al. 2010). The disease in hum ans varies from a flu-like syndrome to a severe systemic disease with pneumonia and possibly encephalitis. The disease is rarely fatal in patients treated promptly and correctly. The incubation period is usually 5–14 days, but longer incubation periods are known (Smith et al. , 2011). Common symptoms of infection in humans include headache, chills, malaise and myalgia, with or without signs of respiratory involvement (Smith et al. , 2011). Therefore, awareness of the danger and early diagnosis are important. Transmission of psittacosis from human to human is rare but can occur.Transmission from humans to birds has not been documented. Diagnoses The diagnosis of C. psittaci infections in birds can be a problem because of the occurrence of persistent infections in non-shedding clinically healthy birds. Isolation of C. psittaci is currently regarded as the standard method for the determination of active infections of birds. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques have been al so used to detect C. psittaci in samples of tissues, feces and respiratory specimens, and were found to be quite sensitive and rapid. Diagnoses can also be established by clinical presentation and positive antibodies against C. sittaci using microimmunoflourescence (MIF) methods (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). Conventional ELISA tests have been developed for detecting antibodies to C. psittaci in birds, however, it tends to sensitivity and specificity. Treatment No commercial vaccine is available for avian chlamydiosis. Antibiotic treatment of birds is the usual response to known infections. Tetracyclines are usually considered the drugs of choice although quinolones or macrolides have also been used (Tully, 2001). Chlortetracycline (CTC) is given on food depending on the bird species to be treated and type of food (Tully, 2001).Another drug that has also proved to be effective is doxycycline, which has been used for injecting and to treat bird food/ drinking water. Tetracycline antibio tics are the drug of choice for C. psittaci infection in humans. Mild to moderate cases can be treated with oral doxycycline or tetracycline hydrochloride (West, 2011). Severely ill patients should be treated with intravenous (IV) doxycycline hyclate. Treatment with antimicrobial drugs in humans usually lasts for 3 weeks while birds are treated for 45 days. Most C. psittaci infections are responsive to antibiotics within 1 to 2 days, however relapses can occur (Seth-Smith et al. 2011). Therefore sensible use of these drugs is very important, to prevent the development of drug-resistant bacterial strains Prevention Management of feral pigeon populations in the urban environment is a complex issue that requires careful planning. Education initiatives to communicate the health risks and recommendations for minimizing these risks should primarily be directed at susceptible groups such as the elderly, young children, immunosupressed individuals, homeless, and occupationally exposed group s (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009).Children should be warned not to handle sick or dead pigeons and immunocompromised individuals should be educated to carefully limit their contact with feral pigeons. Strict hygienic procedures should also be enforced when dealing with birds. Pigeon feeders should be encouraged to stop or limit their activity by implementing a feeding ban in defined urban areas (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanrompay, 2009). Furthermore, preservation of urban hygiene is very important and should be included in the aims of administrators and health officials, as it will lead to a reduced and healthier feral pigeon population (Vazquez et al. , 2010).The relationship between feeding, overcrowding, and the deterioration of living conditions of pigeons, should be the main focus when educating the general public. Monitoring for C. psittaci infections over time, by direct detection of the organism and/or by specific antibody testing, should also be considered in tho se who are in frequent close contact with bird puplations (ie. occupationally exposed workers) (Smith et al. , 2011). In addition, preventive measures such as wearing protective clothes with hoods, boots, gloves and air filter face masks should be worn when removing pigeon faeces from roofs, attics and/or buildings.Finally, for the sake of animal protection, visibly sick birds should be captured and taken into veterinary care where they should be appropriately treated with effective drugs such as tetracyclines, quinolones or macrolides (Seth-Smith et al. , 2011). . Conclusion Feral pigeons, more commonly known as ‘urban’ or ‘city’ pigeons, are present in both urban and rural areas all over the world. Due to frequent and close contact with people, pigeons are a public health concern as they are a source of many zoonotic agents.In particular Chlamydophila psittaci, a bacterium known to cause psittacosis in both birds and humans (Harkinezhad, Geens & Vanro mpay, 2009). Due to the growing population of pigeons, contact with infected pigeons or pathogen transmission is greatly increased. The infectious agent can be easily transmitted to humans through inhalation of contaminated dust and aerosols from infected pigeons or their feces. Once infected, people suffer from various conditions including mild influenza-like symptoms or severe pneumonia.In addition, the huge increase of feral pigeon populations in many cities is a major cause of concern due to the detrimental effect of pigeon droppings on environmental hygiene. Therefore it is important to monitor the health of both city bird populations and humans who come in close contact with possibly infected birds. As well, awareness and preventative measures must be taken into consideration when handling infected birds or their feces. Furthermore, management of feral population and preservation of urban hygiene is very important in controlling psittacosis. Work Cited Aundria West.A brief rev iew of Chlamydophila psittaci in birds and humans. Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine. 2011. 20:18–2. Dickx V, Beeckman D, Dossche L, Tavernier P, Vanrompay D. Chlamydophila psittaci in homing and feral pigeons and zoonotic transmission. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2010. 59: 1348–1353. Greco G, Corrente M, Martella V. Detection of Chlamydophila psittaci in Asymptomatic Animals. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2005. 43: 5410-5411. Harkinezhad T, Geens T, Vanrompay D. Chlamydophila psittaci infections in birds: A review with emphasis on zoonotic consequences.Veterinary Microbiology. 2009. 135: 68–77. Heddema E, Sluis S, Buys J, Vandenbroucke-Grauls C, Van Wijnen J, Visser C. Prevalence of Chlamydophila psittaci in fecal droppings from feral pigeons in Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2006. 34: 4423–4425. Magnino S, Haag-Wackernagel D, Geigenfeind I, Helmecke S, Dovc A, Prukner-Radovc E, Residbegovic E, Ilieski V, Larouc au K, Donati M, Martinov S, Kaleta E. Chlamydial infections in feral pigeons in Europe: Review of data and focus on public health implications. Veterinary Microbiology. 009. 135: 54–67. Seth-Smith H, Harris S, Rance R, West A, Severin J, Ossewaarde J, Cutcliffe L, Skilton R, Marsh P, Parkhill J, Clarke I, Thomson N. Genome sequence of the zoonotic pathogen Chlamydophila psittaci. Journal of Bacteriology. 2011. 28: 1282–1283. Smith K, Campbell C, Murphy J, Stobierski M, Tengelsen L. Compendium of measures to control Chlamydophila psittaci infection among humans (Psittacosis) and pet birds (Avian Chlamydiosis), 2010 National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians (NASPHV). Journal of Exotic Pet Medicine. 011. 20: 32–45. Tully T. Update on Chlamydophila psittaci. Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine, 2001. 10: 20-24. Vanrompay D, Harkinezhad T, Van de Walle M, Beeckman D, Droogenbroeck C, Verminnen K, An Martel R, Cauwerts K. Chlamydophila psittaci t ransmission from pet birds to humans. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2007. 13: 1108-1110. Vazquez B, Esperon F, Neves E, Lopez J, Ballesteros C, Munoz M. Screening for several potential pathogens in feral pigeons (Columba livia) in Madrid. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2010, 52:45-51.

Steven Crane essays

Steven Crane essays Stephen was one of the many great literature authors. He wrote many great stories and got well known for them. Crane went through many events and struggles in his: early years, Born in Newark, New Jersey, on November 1, 1871, Stephen Crane was his parents' fourteenth and last child . His father, Dr. Jonathan Townley Crane, was a Methodist minister, as were his maternal grandfather and other relatives on both sides of his family. Dr. Crane's successive ecclesiastical appointments led the family to move in 1876 to Paterson, New Jersey, and in 1878 to Port Jervis, Crane attended the Hudson River Institute in Claverack, New York, Crane later maintained that he wrote his first major work of fiction, Maggie: A Girl of the Streets, in two days just before Christmas of 1891. Also in early 1893, Crane wrote a first version of what would become The Red Badge of Courage. This novel, his masterpiece, was published in 1895 in both the United States, where it became a bestseller, and England, where it also attracted a great deal of positive notice. In 1895 appeared The Black Riders, the first of Crane's two collections of free verse. In the last year or so of his life, Crane suffered from increasingly virulent attacks of tuberculosis, aggravated by a punishing work schedule. Stephen was then brought to a health spa at Badenweiler, Germany, where he died on June 5, 1900, at the age of twenty-eight. Stephen Crane made permanent contributions not only to the body of American literature but also to its very shape and direction. Stephen Crane wrote many great short stories and got well known for them. He also had many hard times and he had his good times. Crane is now gone but his stories will never be ...

Introduction to the Human Genome Project

Introduction to the Human Genome Project The set of nucleic acid sequences or genes that form the DNA of an organism is its genome. Essentially, a genome is a molecular blueprint for constructing an organism. The human genome is the genetic code in the DNA of the 23 chromosome pairs of Homo sapiens, plus the DNA found within human mitochondria. Egg and sperm cells contain 23 chromosomes (haploid genome) consisting of around three billion DNA base pairs. Somatic cells (e.g., brain, liver, heart) have 23 chromosome pairs (diploid genome) and around six billion base pairs. About 0.1 percent of the base pairs differ from one person to the next. The human genome is about 96 percent similar to that of a chimpanzee, the species that is the nearest genetic relative. The international scientific research community sought to construct a map of the sequence of the nucleotide base pairs that make up human DNA. The United States government started planning the Human Genome Project or HGP in 1984 with a goal to sequence the three billion nucleotides of the haploid genome. A small number of anonymous volunteers  supplied the DNA for the project, so the completed human genome was a mosaic of human DNA and not the genetic sequence of any one person. Human Genome Project History and Timeline While the planning stage started into 1984, the HGP didnt officially launch until 1990. At the time, scientists estimated it would take 15 years to complete the map, but advances in technology led to completion in April of 2003 rather than in 2005. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) provided most of the $3 billion in public funding ($2.7 billion total, due to early completion). Geneticists from all over the world were invited to participate in the Project. In addition to the United States, the international consortium included institutes and universities from the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China, and Germany. Scientists from many other countries also participated. How Gene Sequencing Works To make a map of the human genome, scientists needed to determine the order of the base pair on the DNA of all 23 chromosomes (really, 24, if you consider the sex chromosomes X and Y are different). Each chromosome contained from 50 million to 300 million base pairs, but because the base pairs on a DNA double helix are complementary (i.e., adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine), knowing the composition of one strand of the DNA helix automatically provided information about the complementary strand. In other words, the nature of the molecule simplified the task. While multiple methods were used to determine the code, the main technique employed BAC. BAC stands for bacterial artificial chromosome. To use BAC, human DNA was broken into fragments between 150,000 and 200,000 base pairs in length. The fragments were inserted into bacterial DNA so that when the bacteria reproduced, the human DNA also replicated. This cloning process provided enough DNA to make samples for sequencing. To cover the 3 billion base pairs of the human genome, about 20,000 different BAC clones were made. The BAC clones made what is called a BAC library that contained all the genetic information for a human, but it was like a library in chaos, with no way to tell the order of the books. To fix this, each BAC clone was mapped back to human DNA to find its position in relation to other clones. Next, the BAC clones were cut into smaller fragments about 20,000 base pairs in length for sequencing. These subclones were loaded into a machine called a sequencer. The sequencer prepared 500 to 800 base pairs, which a computer assembled into the correct order to match the BAC clone. As the base pairs were determined, they were made available to the public  online and free to access. Eventually all the pieces of the puzzle were complete and arranged to form a complete genome. Goals of the Human Genome Project The primary goal of the Human Genome Project was to sequence the 3 billion base pairs that make up human DNA. From the sequence, the 20,000 to 25,000 estimated human genes could be identified. However, the genomes of other scientifically significant species were also sequenced as part of the Project, including the genomes of the fruit fly, mouse, yeast, and roundworm. The Project developed new tools and technology for genetic manipulation and sequencing. Public access to the genome assured the entire planet could access the information to spur new discoveries. Why the Human Genome Project Was Important The Human Genome Project formed the first blueprint for a person and  remains the largest collaborative biology project that humanity ever completed. Because the Project sequenced genomes of multiple organisms, scientist could compare them to uncover the functions of genes and to identify which genes are necessary for life. Scientists took the information and techniques from the Project and used them to identify disease genes, devise tests for genetic diseases, and repair damaged genes to prevent problems before they occur. The information is used to predict how a patient will respond to a treatment based on a genetic profile. While the first map took years to complete, advances have led to faster sequencing, allowing scientists to study genetic variation in populations and more quickly determine what specific genes do. The Project also included the development of an Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program. ELSI became the largest bioethics program in the world and serves as a model for programs that deal with new technologies.

Export strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Export strategy - Essay Example However, Jasmine rice has no immediate substitutes and it would not be possible also to create any substitute for it in foreseeable future. But that does not automatically guarantee success as there must be in place proper and rational product strategy, business process strategy, operations strategy and financial strategy to augment the unique selling point of Jasmine rice. This paper deals at length on these strategies and how they should be formulated such that success is assured. Further, this paper also tends to look into the future and try to forecast whether United Kingdom would still remain as attractive an export market it is now a decade later. After making a substantive analysis of British economy the paper concludes that though other varieties of rice produced by Siam Rice Co. might face strong competition from indigenous substitutes, Jasmine rice would still retain it unassailable position in British markets. Export Strategy Export is not the same as selling in a domestic market as it involves not only foreign currency but negotiating a foreign market, foreign tastes and preferences, foreign customs and of course foreign rules and regulations. Thus, export can only be successful if a proper export strategy is in place and is executed efficiently. It should begin with the chances of success a product might have in an export market. The thumb rule for gauging the possibilities of success is whether the product is successful in the domestic market. If a product is successful in domestic market then there is fair chance that it would be a success in foreign markets too. But care must be taken to factor in the customs, tastes and preferences prevalent in foreign markets before blindly assuming that domestic success is failsafe proof of the product being successful in foreign markets also. As for example beef from Chicago is famous for its taste across the world but if a beef exporter feels that they would be able to storm the non-vegetarian markets in In dia they would be in for a rude shock as beef is a taboo for Hindus who form nearly eighty five percent of Indian population. Similarly while pork is an all time favorite in China it does not have any market in Muslim countries where it is a forbidden food. So, an exporter needs to do elaborate market research for accurately gauging the market potential for the product they would like to export (Credit Research Foundation 2007). But before the decision to export is to be made the company must determine in no uncertain terms what it stands to gain from exporting and whether it has sufficient resources at its command to undertake the additional production quantities that would have to be done in order to service both domestic and export markets. The other issue that needs to be clarified is whether the costs related to export are less than the benefits that the company expects to garner from export activity. Only if all these three issues provide a positive answer should a company und ertake exporting activities. Else, it would be better off transacting in domestic markets only (World Export Development Forum 2007). Product Strategy As already discussed, the first test of whether a product can be exported is whether it has a stable market within the country. But, as already been

Human Resource Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Human Resource Management - Research Paper Example The case study is all about the Jet Blue Airways which was founded by David Neeleman in the year 2000. The company has been trying to provide superior service to its staffs and has been constantly struggling for finding the right candidate who could blend with the culture of the organization. Rigorous training was provided to the staffs depending upon the duties and responsibilities. Moreover, the employees or the crew members went out of their way by helping the passengers; and the pilots used to interact with the customers and also engage themselves in activities such as cleaning up the plane for the next flight. The airport manager was found issuing the boarding passes. While recruiting the candidate, the company looked for people who had a positive attitude as the candidate was often asked to do certain things that were not a part of the job description. The airlines basically looked for the five values in the people they hired and these traits were given the first preferences. T he company’s recruitment and selection process have been quite complex. The selection process of the Jet Blue Airways has been focused on the ability of the applicant to handle the situation on several hypothetical situations. Even during the selection process the company tried its best to find the candidates’ abilities to imbibe the values of the Jet Blue. It was also found that despite having revolved around the values of the organization, the employees reported that they were unhappy with the leaders. From the above paragraph, it is evident that the company had a very complex recruitment and selection process. Moreover, it has been focusing more on the values during the selection and the recruitment process. Although, the culture of the organization has helped the company to perform well in the near past, however, it is not always possible for a candidate to have all the five values that the companies look for while recruiting and selecting the candidate. The compan y may face several problems if they have such tight recruitment and selection process. The company also faced problems of leadership and teamwork despite the leaders getting the best training. The company always realized the need to focus on the training of the leaders as they would guide their followers to adhere with the culture of the organization.  

The Obstacles and Hardships while Building the Transcontinental Term Paper

The Obstacles and Hardships while Building the Transcontinental Railroad - Term Paper Example This railway line was referred to as Overland Route (Burger 126). The China immigrant, Celestials, constructed the Central Pacific line. They were perceived weak to work in this line, but they proved that they could work perfectly in the railroad construction. They were employed to work in the construction of the Central Pacific line. Most of the Chinese were miners, or worked in kitchens and did laundries in service industries; others were imported in large numbers from China. The Chinese laborers went on strike because the three dollars a day wage was too little compared to the work that was being done on the railway (Uschan 241). The Irish laborers and the veterans of the Confederate armies and Unions built the Union pacific line. Brigham Young who was the President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Saints yearned that the railway to be completed so that it could promote immigration and promote the growth of population in Salt Lake City, Utah and Ogden. Brigham and the Union Pacific made a labor contact that saw the Mormons have the sole responsibility of building the Union Pacific rail in Utah. They were also allowed to blast and tunnel across the canyon in Weber River (Cooper). The construction work of the transcontinental railway was manually done using black powder, used as explosives, horses, wheelbarrows that were used to ferry materials for construction, shovels, axes and mules. The construction work involved operations like tunneling, building bridges, engineering, masonry, surveying, blacksmithing, track laying, telegraphing and cooking. After completing the work, some Chinese went back to China; others settled in Western nations and got occupations as laundrymen, miners and restaurateurs. The Chinese that opted to settle in the States got land and settled along the Pacific Coast and San Francisco Bay (Cooper). The transcontinental railroad was completed in

Gender Representation in Advertisements

Gender Representation in Advertisements GENDER REPRESENTATION IN COMMERCIALS Imagine a commercial where a half naked man is bringing a beer bottle to a woman while pouring it all  over himself; Imagine a commercial where a loving husband cooks dinner while his wife is watching the  television on the sofa. Just imagine. Something does not seem right? That is because society is used to  certain types of commercials; ones where women are playing the domestic role and men are strong,  needed people. In this essay I will be explaining how different genders are being represented in the TV  advertisements and why ‘life’ from commercials is not something to look up to. Throughout the essay  these points will be shown by ‘taking apart’ commercials that have been on our TVs and we did not even  pay attention to the details and signs that were in front of us the whole time. Firstly, I would like to start from children’s commercials because the roles that young girls and boys are  playing are very similar to the ones that men and women have in other commercials. In one of the  Fisher-price.com[i] ads for a doll house, we can see two girls playing with some of the dolls and they are  already placing the ‘dad’ at the table sitting down while the ‘mom’ cooks and prepares everything,  whilst taking care of the ‘babies’. On the other hand, in a Tonka toy[ii] commercial we can see two boys  playing with the Tonka toys and they are being portrayed as very simple, not intelligent people as their  vocabulary is limited to ‘’This tool rules!’’ and ‘’Yea’’. In both of these commercials we can clearly see  that our children are being thought from a very young age who has which role in the family and this  society. Girls are there to serve the guys and guys are there to give a hand to the helpless girls. Secondly, we can look at commercials where the main characters are played by teenage girls and guys.   In Bissell commercial[iii] for a vacuum cleaner, we can see a family where the mom and her daughter are  very excited about cleaning and the boy in the family offers to get the vacuum for them, but the girl tells  him that there is no need because the vacuum cleaner is not even heavy. Cleaning is being shown as  something fun and easy, and by this society pushes girls into domesticity from young age. When we take  a look at teen males, Axe ad[iv], some people would say that it is just a funny commercial, but others could  be very offended by it. There is a need for the sexual desire of the audience, female and male, since  women are wearing very revealing clothing and are being shown as sexual objects and are willing to do  anything for the attention and acceptance of men. The guy in the commercial is also being shown as just  some kind of a sexual object because he is half naked and women are all over him- stereotypes of  masculinity. And finally, let’s take a look at how adult females and males are being represented in commercials. In  Dyson Vacuum cleaner[v] ad firstly we see a woman in a bikini posing for a photo in some kind of a photo  shoot. The photographer is a man, and the staff that brings drinks to the employees are girls. In the next  moment we see that a vacuum cleaner is connected to the models back and when the guy who is   holding the vacuum cleaner turns it off, the model becomes overweight and much more curvy. She does  not look upset by this fact at all, moreover she is totally fine with it and even walks of the set smiling. This commercial is very downgrading towards women and is very hard to look at and laugh from a  women’s perspective. For the male adults, I have chosen the Milwaukees BEST LIGHT[vi] commercials  because all of them are sending the same message. Men who are showing affection towards their  partners do not deserve to live is the most simple way of putting what this commercial has to show. If  there is any sign of caring and loving side in a man, they are not masculine; all men need to behave in a  tough guy manor, and if not they get mocked and put down. All of these commercials show us how society has accepted certain roles in life as normal, where women  are portrayed as subordinate to men. This can be connected to Marxism, where the proletariat role have  women and men are the bourgeoisie. Gramsci explains that the process by which a power relationship is  accepted, consented to and seen as natural or as ‘common sense’ exists- Hegemony. It is ‘normal’ that a  woman is cleaning, washing, taking care of children, cooking and serving her partner. It is ‘normal’ that a  man is working, bringing the money to the house, fixing things, waiting for everything to come to him,  not caring. Commercials are a part of the media and a lot of people blame the media for everything that the society  is doing and thinking. Levin and Kilbourne claim that heavy exposure to media alters the viewers  perception of social reality in a way that matches the media world, and they are not the only ones. A lot  of very influential people share their opinion, like Germaine Greer, an Australian theorist and academic,  who believes that the media upholds an ideal image of beauty in its representation-an image that the  women are made to be desperate to conform to. The emphasis on beauty/’sexiness’ and women in the  media has meant that women now believe that if they do not conform to this-if they are not beautiful-  they are not successful and are useless. Not only women are the ones who are trying to fit into this  picture that has been imposed on us, according to the research done by academics a lot of men feel the  same way. There is a lot of focus on mus cled and very fit male bodies and it is causing men the same  anxiety and personal insecurity that women have felt for decades. At first I did approach this topic from a feminist side, but simply because it was quite obvious that men  are the one in control and the women were represented as passive objects of the male gaze (Mulvey  1975). University of North Texas professor Steve Craig said that women tend to be represented as  rewards for men who choose the right product; these commercials are narratives of playful escapades  away from home and family. Later on, as I was going through even more material, such as Kraft dressing[vii] and Diet Coke[viii]  commercials, I realized that a number of ads have represented men as objects for the female gaze.  Women viewers are not passive but active and engage critically with these kinds of media texts by   selecting texts that have meaning for them. Even though we do blame the media for these impositions,  Gammon and Marshment stress the importance of the audience’s role in the construction of meaning in  media texts and emphasis the range of interpretations that any text offers. Although these days there are a lot of commercials that are representing men and women differently,  one type of commercial has never been made with a female as the customer and the men as the ‘bait’-  beer commercials. For this reason I have decided to concentrate on beer commercials and how they  affect women and men everywhere. According to Susan Bordo, an academic, men in beer ads are always  being portrayed as virile, slim, muscular and powerful, whilst the women are eager for male  companionship, weak, vulnerable. Men and beer have gone together for ages. Beer is crafted by men in  factories owned by men, sold to men, and consumed by men. I have done a research in order to see if my suspicions are indeed correct. After gathering the results of  my survey, I have found out that a 100% of females asked knew what beer is and have tried it before,  80% of them liked it and would have it again and 48% of them said that beer is their number one drink  when choosing to drink alcohol. When talking about just the United States, according to Dr, Bart Watson  women account for 25% of total consumption by volume, and 37% of craft-beer consumption in the  United States. Meg Gill has said: ‘’It has gotten better the last few years, but sometimes you hear ‘let me pour you  something sweet, honey.’ Women, just like men, love hops. And women can detect bitterness much  better than men.’’ Women were also the first to turn brewing into a lucrative industry, taking beer out  of their kitchens and selling it for a profit around town. In medieval Europe, women known as alewives  skirted the discriminatory rules against female ownership of land and business by opening ale houses.   So why aren’t there any beer commercials where the women are drinking beer and the men are bringing  it to them? Factory-dominated brewing has gone on for so long it seems that society has completely  forgotten that beer was once the domain of women. A lot of people assume that women are trying beer  just because their husband or boyfriend offered them once, when in reality women have been drinking  beer for a longer time than they have been with their husbands. Gender inequality leads to economic  disadvantage for women, gendered violence, exclusion from the higher echelons of power but also from  enjoying good beer. Arbitrary and anachronistic feminine stereotypes are internalized essentially by  women- Naomi McAuliffe. If any of the companies do choose to try and sell the beer to the female part of society, they need to be  very careful since they are not just telling us what beer we are supposed to be drinking, they are also  letting us know what they think about us, collectively, and as individuals. According to Beer Genie the  reason that women don’t drink as much beer as men is a combination of misconceptions, myopic macho  marketing, a lack of knowledge and information and the way it is served. It has nothing to do with the  taste, and that is why I think that the commercials are to blame for women being ‘afraid’ to try beer or  even ask for one in a bar/pub. In order to try and change the view of beer, I have decided to make a beer commercial where the roles  will be changed. The woman is going to be the one drinking the beer, and the man is going to be the one  handing it to her. I am hoping that by doing this, I will be able to show how by just reversing the ‘normal’  roles, men and women can be seen in a different light. If we want to provide males and females with a wide range of possible roles, we need to make sure that  they are being thought from the young age that they are free to explore all the roles. There is a lot of  room for improvement when it comes to gender representation in commercials. [i] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NHy8zMPOa2Q [ii] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EHlmGRhj7vM [iii] Look at the attachment [iv] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V6rAQHa1gmc [v] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t_3oIy5jAG0 [vi] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xGItoKaX0BM [vii] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uH1dEWhutm8 [viii] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ff-jBpca7Cw BIBLIOGRAPHY: http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/aug/14/pint-beer-woman-right Accessed: 22/5/15 http://www.acrwebsite.org/search/view-conference-proceedings.aspx?Id=7225 Accessed: 22/5/15 http://firstwefeast.com/drink/how-craft-beer-fails-its-female-fan-base/ Accessed: 25/5/15 http://www.tested.com/food/460240-women-are-taking-back-beer/ Accessed: 20/5/15 http://www.beerwestmag.com/the-magazine/feature-have-you-really-come-a-long-way-baby/ Accessed: 22/5/15 http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/aug/14/pint-beer-woman-right Accessed: 20/5/15 All of these sources are very reliable and up to date. Some of them have been written in more than two years ago, but have been updated fairly recently.